Olivia Fey, Technical Writer, United Protective Technologies, LLC (UPT) Mike Greenwald, Vice President of Engineering, UPT
Wear, friction, and corrosion constantly threaten mechanical components, causing efficiency losses and decreased component life. As more efficient designs and material advancements are introduced, these threats continue to be a point of frustration for engineers and end users.
To combat these losses, protective coatings were developed including legacy coatings like nickel-boron, chrome in its various forms, and cadmium typically deposited by electrolysis. While these coatings helped reduce wear, friction, and corrosion, they weren’t ideal, primarily due to the adverse health and environmental effects caused during their application and disposal. Not only that, but their performance character istics left room for improvement and where there’s opportunity, there’s an engineer ready to develop a solution.
Thanks to advancements in material science and chemistry, particularly in nanoscience, a new solution has emerged: nanocomposite coat ings, more broadly referred to as thin-film coatings. But how did we arrive at this point in coating development? As with many technologies, war highlighted the need for more advanced coating development eventually leading to nanocomposite coatings.
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Evolution of Nanocomposite Coatings: Pioneering Materials Engineering
World War II Era
Optical Coatings: During World War II, the demand for improved optics led to advancements in optical coatings. Anti reflective coatings, composed of thin films, were developed to enhance the performance of lenses and other optical devices.
Post-World War II
Thin-Film Deposition Techniques: In the post-war period, there was significant progress made in thin-film deposition techniques. Vacuum deposition methods emerged, such as Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) and Chemical Vapor Depo
sition (CVD). These techniques enabled precise control over coating thickness, microstructure, and composition, laying the foundation for developing nanocomposite coatings.
1950s–1960s
Semiconductor Industry: The semiconductor industry’s growth in the 1950s and 1960s drove advancements in thin film technology. Thin films became integral to the manufac turing of semiconductors, with techniques like sputtering and evaporation becoming widely adopted.
1970s–1980s
Plasma-Assisted Techniques: The use of plasmas to assist in thin-film deposition gained prominence in the 1970s and 1980s. Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition (PACVD) and Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD) techniques were developed, improving film properties and lower processing temperatures.
Late 20th Century
Advancements in Coating Materials: Continued research led to developing a wide range of coating materials. Thin films were now being applied not only for functional purposes like cor rosion resistance and optical enhancement but also for novel applications in electronics, sensors, and medical devices.
21st Century
Nanotechnology and Multifunctional Coatings: The 21st century saw a convergence of nanotechnology and thin-film coatings. Nanocomposite coatings, with nanoscale materials embedded, became a focus for enhanced properties. Multifunc
tional coatings, offering a combination of properties such as self-cleaning, anti-bacterial, and enhanced mechanical proper ties, gained attention.
Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings: Engineering Marvels of Nature Inspired Design Amidst the evolution of nanocomposite coatings, diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings emerged as a breakthrough innovation, drawing inspiration from the extraordinary properties of natu ral diamonds. Unlike conventional carbon coatings, which often exhibited limited hardness, wear resistance, and adhesion, DLC
coatings offered a compelling alternative with their exceptional mechanical and tribological properties.
The genesis of DLC coatings can be traced back to the pioneering work of researchers in the 1970s and 1980s, who sought to replicate the structure and properties of diamonds through various deposition methods. By employing hydro
carbon precursor gases in a vacuum environment, researchers could generate amorphous carbon films with diamond-like characteristics, including high hardness, low friction, and chemical inertness.
The development of advanced deposition techniques, such as plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD), further refined the synthesis of DLC coatings, enabling precise control over coating morphology, sp2/sp3 carbon bonding ratio i.e. dia
mond/ graphitic ratio, and internal stress levels.
As seen in Figure 1, the ratio of sp2 to sp3 carbon bonding has a direct effect on the properties exhibited by a DLC coat ing. Besides, sp2/sp3 ratio, hydrogen content impacts the prop erties exhibited.
Figure 2—Ternary phase diagram for DLC thin films. Adapted from Ref. 1.
Unraveling the Enigmatic
Properties of Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings
DLC coatings exhibit a plethora of exceptional properties, each contributing to their unparalleled performance in various industrial applications:
Hardness and Wear Resistance: DLC coatings boast extraordinary hardness, rivaling that of natural diamond, with values typically exceeding 20 GPa (~ 2000 HV). This exceptional hardness renders DLC-coated surfaces highly resistant to abrasive wear, adhesive wear, and surface defor
mation, ensuring prolonged service life and reliability in high-stress environments.
Tribological Performance: The low friction coefficient of DLC coatings, coupled with their smooth surface finish, mitigates frictional losses and wear in mechanical systems, thereby enhanc ing operational efficiency and reducing energy consumption. The tribological behavior of DLC coatings can be further optimized through the incorporation of dopants, such as hydrogen or silicon, to modulate surface chemistry and lubricant interaction.
22 GEAR TECHNOLOGY | June 2024 geartechnology.com
Chemical Inertness: DLC coatings exhibit inherent chemi cal inertness, rendering them impervious to corrosive agents, oxidizing environments, and aggressive chemicals. This chemical stability preserves the integrity of coated surfaces and prevents contamination and degradation of adjacent components, making DLC coatings indispensable in harsh operating conditions.
Adhesion and Coating Integrity: The adhesion strength of DLC coatings to substrate materials is critical for ensur ing long-term performance and durability. Advanced surface pretreatment techniques, such as ion bombardment or plasma cleaning, promote interfacial bonding and adhesion between the DLC coating and substrate, thereby minimizing the risk of delamination or spalling under mechanical loading.
Biocompatibility and Biofunctionality: DLC coatings exhibit biocompatible properties in biomedical applications, facilitating integration with biological tissues and implants. The bioinert nature of DLC coatings mitigates inflammatory responses and tissue rejection, while surface modifications, such as surface functionalization or bioactive coatings, impart biofunctionality for tailored biomedical applications.
Optimizing Gear Performance: Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings in Action
Now that we’ve elucidated the remarkable properties of DLC coatings, let’s explore their transformative impact on gear applications, with a focus on electric vehicle transmissions and industrial gearbox systems.
Electric Vehicle Transmissions: Efficiency, Reliability, and
Sustainability
Electric vehicles (EVs) represent the vanguard of automo tive innovation, propelled by electric propulsion systems that demand lightweight, compact, and efficient transmission solu tions. DLC coatings emerge as a strategic enabler for enhancing
the performance and sustainability of EV transmissions: Enhanced Efficiency and Range: The integration of DLC coated gear components within EV transmissions yields sub stantial improvements in energy efficiency and range. By reducing frictional losses and wear, DLC coatings optimize power transmission, minimize energy dissipation, and extend the operational lifespan of critical drivetrain components. Thermal Management and Durability: Lower friction results in lower thermal load leading to better thermal man agement within EV transmissions, thereby mitigating the risk of overheating and thermal degradation. Additionally, DLC coatings enhance the thermal stability and wear resistance of gear surfaces, ensuring robust performance under dynamic operating conditions.
Noise Reduction and Vibration Damping: DLC-coated gear systems exhibit reduced noise emissions and vibration levels compared to traditional metal-on-metal configura tions. The inherent damping properties of DLC coatings attenuate mechanical vibrations, harmonics, and resonance, thereby enhancing passenger comfort and drivetrain refine ment in EVs.
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Figure 3: SEM micrograph of Nanocomposite coating.
Industrial Gearbox Systems: Productivity, Reliability, and Maintenance Optimization
In industrial settings, gearbox systems serve as the mechani cal backbone of machinery and equipment, facilitating power transmission, speed reduction, and torque amplification across diverse applications. DLC coatings emerge as a strategic asset for optimizing the performance, reliability, and maintenance requirements of industrial gearbox systems:
Enhanced Load-Bearing Capacity: DLC-coated gears exhibit superior load-bearing capacity and fatigue resistance, enabling them to withstand the rigors of heavy-duty indus trial applications. The exceptional hardness and wear resis tance of DLC coatings mitigates surface damage, pitting, and micro-fractures, thereby prolonging the service life of gear box components.
Efficiency Optimization and Energy Savings: Industrial gearbox systems often operate at high torque levels and rota tional speeds, necessitating efficient power transmission and minimal energy losses. DLC coatings reduce frictional losses, improve gear meshing efficiency, and optimize lubricant reten tion, resulting in energy savings, reduced operating tempera tures, and enhanced gearbox efficiency.
Maintenance Interval Extension: DLC coatings mitigate the need for frequent maintenance interventions and lubricant replenishment in industrial gearbox systems. The self-lubricat ing properties of DLC-coated surfaces, combined with their resistance to abrasive wear and surface oxidation, contribute to extended maintenance intervals, reduced downtime, and enhanced equipment availability.
Advanced Applications and Emerging Trends in DLC Coatings Beyond conventional gear applications, DLC coatings are finding novel applications and driving innovation across diverse industries:
Aerospace and Defense: DLC coatings enhance the per formance and durability of aircraft components, such as gears, bearings, and actuators, in demanding aerospace environments characterized by high speeds, loads, and temperatures.
Renewable Energy: DLC coatings optimize the efficiency and reliability of wind turbine gearboxes, hydroelectric turbines, and solar tracking systems, thereby contributing to the expansion of renewable energy sources and sustainable power generation.
Medical Devices and Implants: DLC coatings exhibit bio compatible properties and wear resistance, making them ideal for orthopedic implants, surgical instruments, and medical devices requiring prolonged contact with biological tissues.
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS): DLC coat ings provide lubrication and wear protection for MEMS devices, such as accelerometers, gyroscopes, and microvalves, enabling miniaturization and improved performance in microscale applications.
Challenges and Future Directions in DLC Coating Technology Despite the myriad benefits offered by DLC coatings, several
challenges and opportunities exist on the horizon: Optimization of Deposition Processes: Enhancing the deposition efficiency, uniformity, and scalability of DLC coat ings through advanced deposition techniques, such as plasma immersion ion implantation (PIII) and hybrid deposition
24 GEAR TECHNOLOGY | June 2024 geartechnology.com
methods, to meet the demands of mass production and high throughput applications.
Tailoring Surface Properties: Engineering DLC coatings with tailored surface properties, such as tunable friction, wear, and adhesion. This is accomplished through the incorporation of dopants, nanocomposite additives, or surface functionaliza
tion techniques, to address specific application requirements and performance objectives.
Multifunctional Coating Systems: Developing multifunc tional coating systems by integrating DLC coatings with com plementary materials, such as diamond nanoparticles, metal oxides, or polymers, to synergistically enhance mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties for multifaceted applications.
Sustainability and Environmental Impact: Exploring sustainable sources of precursor materials and renew able energy sources for DLC coating deposition processes and advancing recycling and reclamation technologies for reclaiming and reusing DLC-coated components to mini mize environmental footprint.
Conclusion: Harnessing the Power of Diamond-Like Carbon Coatings In conclusion, diamond-like carbon coatings epitomize the con vergence of cutting-edge material science, nanotechnology, and engineering innovation. Their exceptional hardness, tribological performance, chemical inertness, and biocompatibility render them indispensable in various industrial applications, particularly in gear
systems where durability, efficiency, and reliability are paramount. Embracing the transformative potential of DLC coatings unlocks new frontiers in performance optimization, sustain ability, and technological advancement. By integrating DLC
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In the ever-evolving landscape of materials engineering and surface technology, diamond-like carbon coatings stand as a beacon of progress and possibility, empowering industries to surmount challenges, transcend limitations, and redefine the boundaries of what’s achievable. These goals drive the continu
ous innovation here at United Protective Technologies (UPT). For more than two decades UPT has researched, developed, and applied advanced surface solutions for demanding appli cations. Our nanocomposite coating innovations are used to enable advancements in industries from aerospace to automo tive, medical to metalworking, weapons systems to oil and gas.
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References
1. J. Robertson, Diamond-like amorphous carbon, Mater. Sci. Eng. R Reports, Vol. 37, No. 4–6, 2002, pp. 129–281. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0927-796X(02)00005-0
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